Rambam and belief in Techiyat HaMetim

Belief in the doctrine of revivification of the dead, normally associated with a future Messianic era, is declared by an undisputed Mishnah in this week’s Daf Yomi study to be a fundamental belief of Judaism and a pre-requisite to entry to Olam Haba. This position is adopted by Rambam in his halachic works, Hilchot Teshuvah and the 13 Principles of Faith at the end of his Introduction to Chelek.

In the worldview of Ramban, techiyat hametim is the highest level of posthumous reward, and is facilitated by the soul being reunited with the body. Accordingly, one can understand why such emphasis is placed on belief in techiyat hametim.

Such an approach, which suggests a role for the body in the ‘world of the souls’, is absolute anathema however to Rambam, for whom the body does not and cannot feature in any aspect of Olam Haba. For Rambam the physical body is a barrier which prevents the mind from fully grasping divine matters during a person's lifetime. The reward of Olam Haba is experienced by the soul when it achieves a purer perception of reality after death, a level of understanding which can be reached precisely because the soul is no longer restrained by its previous physical associations.

Techiyat hametim, Rambam explains in his introduction to Chelek, is not a reward in the sense in which Ramban understands it. Rather, it is a temporary return of the soul from its place of pleasure in Olam Haba to the physical body from which it had departed. But what is the utility of this techiyat hametim for Rambam, and how can we explain the importance he attributes to it, listing techiyat hametim among his 13 Principles of Faith?

One possible answer is that, since the ultimate reward of Olam Haba is limited by the extent of the connection that a person is able to forge with God during his lifetime, the opportunity to return temporarily from Olam Haba in order to enhance this connection is a considerable benefit. The extent to which the soul can comprehend divine truths in Olam Haba is determined by how much it was developed, both in terms of intellect and character traits, during the lifetime of the body which that soul inhabits. Techiyat hametim, in the sense of a temporary reunification of soul and body, will occur in the times of Mashiach when persistent worldly distractions will be replaced by a 'tidal wave' of knowledge of God. With this heightened awareness of God, conditions will be ideal for the soul to achieve its perfection, and a clear perception of Divine truths will be accessible to all. In this elevated state of perception, "Your sons and daughters will prophesy".

This way of explaining Rambam finds support in the Sefer Ha’ikkarim of R’ Yosef Albo (4:30):

“… Rambam concludes that the primary divine reward for mankind relates to the soul and not the body, and therefore it appears to him that the primary function of techiyah is not to furnish reward to the body, but rather so that the person can acquire a greater degree of perfection than he was able to achieve originally [in his initial life] when he was inhibited by external preventative factors such as those arising from exile, poverty or others; the inhibitions did not arise from him making unsound choices or in any way from himself.”

On this basis we can suggest that a particular significance of techiyat hametim to Rambam’s thought, which may explain its inclusion among the core tenets of Jewish faith, is that, without it, God and His system of Olam Haba appear fundamentally unfair. If reward in the next world is determined solely by the extent to which a person has been able to develop and connect his soul to God during his lifetime, it is inevitably limited by that person’s life-span, material and intellectual assets and position in society.

Without techiyat hametim providing a further opportunity to connect with God even after death, it would appear that every individual’s personal allocation of Olam Haba is strongly influenced by good fortune, with those afforded greater opportunities and resources receiving an arbitrary advantage. A corollary of this would be the conclusion that God operates unjustly, discriminating against those whose life circumstances do not permit them to reach their potential. In this light, Rambam's techiyat hametim can be seen as crucial in allowing for the rectification of unavoidable deficiencies which would otherwise have prevented the soul from achieving the connection to God in Olam Haba of which it was worthy.

Rambam’s acceptance of the doctrine of techiyat hametim was a matter of great controversy during his lifetime; his earlier works only making brief mention of it in order to confirm its status as an essential tenet of faith. This lack of coverage, combined with Rambam’s strong insistence on a purely metaphysical Olam Haba, led some to question whether he genuinely subscribed to the traditional view of the soul returning to the body. The issue gained particular prominence because it represented a deeper question: how did Rambam resolve contradictions between the Torah's teachings and his general worldview which was based upon Aristotelian rationalism?

In response to the ongoing controversy, Rambam wrote his Iggeret Techiyat Hametim in which he forcefully condemned the 'slanderous allegations' against him. Explaining why he had previously written so little on the subject of techiyat hametim, Rambam describes it as a 'mofet' that defies the kind of rational explanation which dominates his philosophical works.

Judaism Reclaimed’s treatment of this topic, which explores how the respective techiyah theories of Rambam and Ramban can be fitted into their broader worldviews, concludes with a comprehensive appraisal of claims made in various quarters that Rambam’s Iggeret concerning resurrection did not represent his true views on the subject. Whatever one concludes, the subject of techiyat hameitim remains pivotal to understanding the Maimonidean world view and how it contrasts to other systems of thought within Judaism.

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Yom Kippur and "hell" in Jewish thought

The heavy atmosphere and liturgy of Yom Kippur are designed to direct our thoughts towards weighty matters. Recognition of sin, the process of atonement and potential consequences of our actions all feature prominently in the prayers.

Taking a step back, there is one very surprising omission. For a day so strongly focused on sin, punishment and promoting repentance, there is barely any mention of the “eternal hell-fire” so ubiquitous in Christian texts. This prompts us to ask a series of questions: (i) What exactly is the Jewish concept of Hell? (ii) Why does it feature so rarely in Jewish texts? (iii) Does it have any deeper relevance to Yom Kippur?

The chapters of Judaism Reclaimed which relate to parashat Ha’azinu explore the concepts of the World to Come, Gehinnom and resurrection of the dead – primarily from a Maimonidean perspective. A key problem, which troubled a number of leading rabbinic thinkers, is how seemingly physical phenomena, such as the hell-fire described in aggadic literature, can impact on the spiritual (non-physical) soul.

Ramban addresses this problem by proposing an intermediate category – neither entirely physical nor spiritual – to which these concepts relate. He explains that 'hell-fire' does not consist of Earthly substances with which we are familiar, but rather is a special 'quasi-physical' creation by God which is therefore capable of inflicting suffering upon the quasi-physical souls of sinners.

This solution is not available to Rambam, however, who does not subscribe to the notion of a quasi-physical realm for the soul post-death. Twice in his Mishneh Torah, Rambam emphasises that, upon death, the only element of the soul that remains is the mind (sechel). One consequence of this is that the soul which remains after death is not equipped to experience any kind of physical pain which could be inflicted by a fiery Gehinnom.

A further challenge involves the notion of resurrection of the dead to a physical body. Since, in Rambam’s understanding, eternal reward is a spiritual pleasure experienced by the soul alone in the World to Come, it is not immediately clear what benefit such resurrection could provide. After exploring the significant debates which took place over Rambam’s beliefs over techiya, Judaism Reclaimed develops an approach of Rabbi Yosef Albo in Sefer Ha’Ikkarim. According to R’ Albo, resurrection within Rambam’s worldview plays an important role in levelling the playing field, offering opportunities for those who were religiously observant but lacked the resources to develop a strong connection to God and the Torah during their lives. Being temporarily resurrected in a messianic era in which men and women are surrounded by 'tidal waves of knowledge of God' will afford such people a deserved opportunity to maximise their standing in the World to Come.

It is possible that this notion of temporary resurrection in an era of perfection also offers us a way to explain Rambam’s concept of Gehinnom. In such an era of perfection, it is not hard to see how those witnessing these events but who are themselves deprived of such opportunities to participate and develop their connection to God will be consumed by shame and regret at having been personally responsible for their unfortunate situation.

This idea of the wicked being punished in the messianic era by witnessing the spiritual bounty of the righteous while being themselves deprived is supported by a passage in Yeshaya. Addressing the wicked in the Messianic era Yeshaya declares:

“Therefore thus said my Lord, God: Behold, My servants will eat and you will starve … My servants will rejoice and you will be ashamed”. [65:13-14]

Yeshaya’s metaphorical feast is interpreted by Tannaic sages (Shabbat 153a) as a depiction of the contrasting fate of the worthy and unworthy. The righteous will partake of the spiritual ‘feast’ and be satiated, while “ravenous” sinners will be made to “stand and watch”.

Such an approach allows us to decode a whole group of perplexing midrashic sources – for example a statement by Reish Lakish that: "In the future there will be no Gehinnom, rather God will remove the sun from its sheath; the righteous will be cured by it and the wicked will be judged by it".

To summarise, the fires of Gehinnom, are not understood to be literal flames (see also Radak and Metzudat to Yeshayah 31:33). Rather they represent a temporary state of deep shame and humiliation which sinners will feel when faced with the truth and the damage that they have inflicted on their own souls. Non-severe sinners, Rambam writes, will thereby “be judged for their sins and will receive Olam Haba” (Hilchot Teshuva 3:5).

Returning now to the question of Yom Kippur, is there any connection between the purification and atonement offered by Gehinnom and the purification and atonement of Yom Kippur? How is it that Yom Kippur can provide forgiveness for our sins?

The central feature of the Yom Kippur service is viduy – a verbal recitation of our sins before God. On this day we shunt aside our physical needs and desires, and stand before God with a certain spiritual clarity that informs our aspirations and ideals rather than the messy compromises that the realities of everyday life necessitate. In this context – as in the truth of the messianic era – recognising how we have fallen short during the year and lost our moral and religious compasses should lead us to a feeling of deep embarrassment. As we summarise at the end of the viduy “Behold I am before you like a vessel filled with embarrassment and shame” [harei ani lefanecha kichli malei busha uchlimah].

Perhaps going through this process mirrors, to an extent, the shame of Gehinnom. The result is “lifnei Hashem titharu” – that we become cleansed of our sins and thereby gain the opportunity to redefine and recreate our relationship with God in a more positive manner. It is the joy which arises from this whole process which shines through the traditional celebrations at the end of Yom Kippur – a joy which we seek to take with us in the next set of festivals.

First posted to Facebook 2 October 2022, here.